THE REBIRTH OF SOMALILAND
History of Somaliland (1)
(By Dr Hussein Mohamed Nur)
“History is past politics, and politics is present history” (E.A.Freeman,
1886).
This is a brief account of the history of Somaliland. From
historical perspective the history of Somaliland is peculiarly
different from the history of Somalia. Those who argue against the
present state of independence and sovereignty out rightly ignore how
Somaliland is historically differentiates from other Somali
inhabited territories.
Somaliland has an ancient history and civilisation. For a long
period in the past, Somaliland had well established trade links with
the rest of the world particularly ancient Egypt (the Pharaohs), the
Romans, the Arabian Peninsula and the Indian sub-continent.
Commodities like hides and skins, frankincense and myrrh, ivory,
gums, feathers were traded in exchange for consumer products such as
sugar, tea, dates, clothes etc. It was uniquely the hub of spices
trade (Frankincense and Myrrh). The trade links to the Middle East
and East Asia existed via the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean routes.
With the introduction of Islam, and later on during the spread of
the Ottoman Empire, trade firmly set foot along the coasts of
Somaliland. For instance, between the 10th and 14th centuries
Chinese merchants frequented the coast of Somaliland and Egyptians
had a long historical relationship with Somaliland.
In the 16th century Zeila was occupied and annexed by the Ottoman
Empire as a port town. In the 1880s Europeans (Britain, Italy and
France) began disputing with each other for control for spheres of
political influence in Africa. At the turn of the 19th century, when
the Ottoman Empire weakened was on the brink of collapse, Egypt
which was a vassal of the Ottoman, Empire occupied the western parts
of Somaliland.
Following the British occupation of Aden in 1839 and after the
opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, the expansion of the British
Empire was brought to the doorsteps of Somaliland. To safeguard its
trade interests in the Indian Ocean, during the scramble and
partition for Africa between the Europeans, in 1884 Britain
proclaimed Somaliland as a protectorate ‘British Somaliland
Protectorate’ and appointed its first agent in 1885. British of
Somaliland was the result of series of agreements with the local
traditional elders and chiefs. Britain accepted to occupy Somaliland
to act as fiduciary. The raison d’etre for the occupation was
largely for the protection of the colony. For administrative
purposes Somaliland was divided into five administrative districts
in the protectorate (Berbera, Hargeisa, Buroa, Erigavo and Zeila).
From the British point of view the occupation the purpose of
occupation was utilitarian: a) to use it to play a key role of the
increasing Empire’s control of vital Bab-el Mandab strait for the
security of the Suez Canal and the safety of the Empire’s naval
route through the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden to East Asia, and b)
to provide meat especially mutton to the British garrison based at
Aden. However, from the Somali traditional chiefs and elders point
of view the occupation was for safeguard of the security of
Somaliland.
For centuries, people of Somali ethnic origin in the East or Horn of
Africa region have been practising nomadic pastoralism wandering in
transhumance mode moving within the entire region in search of
grazing pastures for their stock to exploit the production system of
pure nomadism. That led to the spread of Somalis region ending in
different parts of the region (Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, Somaliland
and Djibouti). But nevertheless, Somali people, wherever they live,
share a common identity in terms of the language (Somali), religion
(Muslim) and socio-cultural matters. There never has been a common
or single nation within a defined territory at any one time and
Somali nationalism only began with colonialism which eventually
steered to the rise and emergence of the concept of bringing all
Somalis in the region under one unit or nation. Somali people had
always relationships with neighbouring communities. Relationship
between Somalis and Ethiopians existed since the 13th century.
On arrival of European colonialists in Africa, Menelik, the Emperor
of Ethiopia, showed his interest that he had to have a share in the
partisanship of Africa as an imperial power in the region. The
Emperor voiced that he would not be watching the European powers
dividing and having shares of the African continent for themselves
and that as a ruling kingdom, Abyssinia should also have its share
of the cake. The Europeans allowed that. As a matter of fact, the
Empire had always an eye on the neighbouring territories including
the Somalis. Earlier in 1889, Emperor Menelik together with Ras
Mekenon (his Governor of Harar region), annexed the Somali-inhabited
parts.
Before the British formally occupied Somaliland, a series of
agreements and treaties with the local chiefs and clan leaders
preceded. Britain first made treaties with the different Somali
local tribes in 1827, followed by others in 1840. Between 1884 and
1886 alone, at least six treaties and three supplementary agreements
were signed with the elders of different clans. In all of them
Majesty’s protection was guaranteed. It is noteworthy to mention
that a number of agreements were held on board of ships off the
coast as the local people did not allow the British to land before
signing any agreement. A system of indirect rule of Somaliland was
first established. Somaliland was initially ruled from India and
later on through the colonial office after it transformed the
regions into a protectorate.
In 1894 Britain and Emperor of Ethiopia (Menelik) made an agreement
the instrumental aspect of which was that the Emperor would, in
return, not support the Mahdi of The Sudan who was fighting the
British. Emperor Menelik always had a project to extend full
authority on Somali-inhabited lands known as the Ogaden. His
successor Tefari Mekenon, later renamed as Haile Selassie as
popularly known took the thrown in 1928 had full control of Somalis
in the region and insisted to consolidate his ambition.
But during the Dervishes movements led by the Sayed Mohamed Abdulle
Hassan there was a hindrance to freely invade the entire Somali
region. After the end of the Dervishes struggle, another part of
Somali-inhabited areas (Haud and Reserved Area), a vast area of
grazing lands of Somaliland and its Somali population, were handed
to Ethiopia by the British.
As Somaliland became part of the British Empire there was the
necessity for the defining and delimiting the borders of the
protectorate with the neighbouring territories of Ethiopia, French
territory of Djibouti and Italian Somalia.
Since different parts of Somali-inhabited regions were colonised by
different European colonial powers (British, Italian and French) the
borders and contours of the British Somaliland protectorate needed
to be determined. Britain made legal agreements and international
treaties with the French, Italy and Ethiopian Emperor through the
Anglo-French treaty of 1888; the Anglo-Italian treaty in 1894 and
Anglo-Ethiopian treaty 1897 respectively. Therefore, Somaliland as a
British Protectorate had established borders as enshrined by those
treaties delimiting its international boundaries with the
neighbouring territories (the Ethiopian Empire, Italian Somalia in
the South and the French Somali territory of Djibouti (presently
Republic of Djibouti). The borders of Somaliland at the present are
the same as they were during its protectorate years, the same during
its independence years from the British Crown in 1960 and same as
they are today as the independent Republic of Somaliland.
Historically, the Ethiopian emperors were always in pursuit to
control the Somali-inhabited area as well as other nationalities in
the area. The ‘mythical kingdom’ at Axum had always an interest to
bring all nationalities such as the Somalis, the Arusans, the Oromo,
the Herari, the Guraje, etc. under its control. For a brief period,
In 1935/36, Italy took control of Ethiopia until the British
re-occupied it again after the Second World War when the alliance of
Italy and Germany were defeated by the allies. However, Britain
withdrew as Ethiopia reasserted rule over the Somali population when
Britain withdrew. In 1954 Britain handed over the ‘Haud and Reserved
area’ to Ethiopia in 1954.
Somaliland was declared a British colony in 1884, however,
technically it was not so until 1920 when the Sayid, Mohamed Abdulle
Hassan, the leader of the Dervish Movement who fought with the
British colonial administration was defeated when a combined land
forces (the Somaliland Camel Corps, the Somaliland Police, together
with the 2nd and 6th Kings African Rifle (KAR) and contingents of
Indian Battalions and air offensive. It was then it became a
full-flexed protectorate.
In due course and over the time, Somaliland identity began to take a
formal shape. The beginning of a sense of nationalism and
Somaliland’s national identity is very much rooted in the colonial
experience. Nevertheless, Somali people share common cultural and
political identities. The British always allowed the tribal leaders
and chiefs to run local affairs in their traditional ways and the
colonial authority left the traditional structures and culture of
the society in place. The other colonial regimes (the Italians and
the French) had interventionist policies into the Somali societies
they colonised that showed tendencies in interfering with the lives
of the Somali societies.
During the colonial period, the protectorate was administered by
colonial political agents, commissioners, administrators, and
Governors during the colonial period (about 21 in total) between
1884 and 1960. The last British Governor, Sir Douglas Hall (a
military Governor) was in Hargeisa from 11 July 1959 and handed over
to a native Somali Governor, Osman Ahmed Hassan on 26 June 1960.
Somalia was put under 10-years UN Trusteeship in December 1950 with
Italy as the administrator power to prepare them for independence.
Italian Somalia saw different Italian administrators or Governors.
The last was Mario Di Stefani (1958 to 1960). The Trust Territory of
Somalia had its first general elections in March 1959 in which 83
out of the 90 seats in the Legislative Assembly were scooped by a
single party, the SYL.
Decolonisation process
In the late 1920s, the first political organisation (the Somali
Islamic Association) was established in Aden by members of
Somaliland origin in the diaspora for the purpose of promoting the
discussion of the Somali community issues in Aden and question of
the British rule in Somaliland. Later on, in the early 1930s, as a
spill over from this organisation, clubs were organised in
Somaliland in Berbera and Hargeisa. Hadiyatul Rahman’ (God’s gift)
Association was opened in Berbera and ‘Al-Khairiya’ (the blessed)
Association in Hargeisa. Members of those clubs dared to wage
critics to the colonial administration. Further politicisation of
the clubs led to the formation of the Somali National Society (SNS).
At the end of the Second World War, four of the Somali-inhabited
territories with the exception of Djibouti which was a French
colony), i.e., the British Somaliland Protectorate; Somalia, the
Northern Frontier District (NFD) ruled together with Kenya as
British colony and the Somali region in Ethiopia together with Haud
and Reserved Area all fell under the British rule.
As nationalism grew, a wholehearted popular vision, converging
aspirations and a strong wish of the people in the intention
developed. The union between Somaliland and Somalia was considered
as pursuit of the ‘Greater Somalia’ dream and the rise of Somali
irredentism in bringing all five territories inhabited by ethnic
Somalis in East Africa (the Ogaden and Haud and Reserve Area under
Ethiopian Empire, the Northern Frontier District – NFD - part of the
British colony with Kenya, the French colony of Djibouti, the
British Protectorate of Somaliland and South Somalia under Italy).
The idea of unifying Somalis or the Greater Somalia concept was
politically advocated by British. At the end of the Second World
War, Ernest Bevin (a British Foreign Secretary, a post-war British
politician and statesman) suggested that all Somali-inhabited
territories, with the exception of Djibouti which was under the
French, became under the British rule. Britain replaced Italy to
rule Ethiopia after its defeat in WWII. In fact, the entire East
Africa region was under the British colonial rule or Empire. It was
on April 1961 that Bevin made the proposal and argued that all
Somalis be united as one “The best way for the wandering Somali
pastoral nomads to survive in the marginal environment was to let
them united all under the British Administration”. But on the
international level the British plan was rejected the other big
powers (France, USSR and USA) as they were suspicious about the
British intentions that it would undermine their interests and
influences in Somalia. The Ethiopian Emperor also protested. In
relation to the unity of Somalis, Britain organised the formation of
Somali Youth Club (SYC) represented by all Somali clans to convince
Somalis. Meanwhile two prominent political figures from Somaliland
protectorate, Michael Mariano and Adan??, were then also transferred
to Mogadishu to write up the SYC (later changed to the Somali Youth
League, SYL). The SYL had in its constitution the mandate of unite
all five Somali territories under one banner. In the end, a Somali
Conference was organised in Mogadishu which was chaired by Sultan
Abdillahi Suldan Deria from Hargeisa. But the idea of British
administration (under the UN Trusteeship) was rejected by the
politicians of Somalia as they wanted the Italians to implement the
UN administration and not the British. Thus, the UN Security Council
then transferred the trusteeship of Somalia to Italy to prepare them
for independence after 10 years. The Somali region in Ethiopia, the
Ogaden and the Haud and Reserve area remained with Ethiopia and in
1963, the NFD became part of the independent Kenya.
Bevin’s idea became an important catalytic precursor for the
strengthening the concept of Somali nationalism and the Greater
Somalia notion. The SNS underwent through development
transformations and it finally changed to Somali National League (SNL)
party.
A combination of factors contributed to raising the consciousness
and awareness of people of the idea of unifying all Somali
territories: (i) from 1945 political campaigns spearheaded by the
SYL party in the South; (ii) the suggestion of the British Foreign
Secretary in 1946 to put Somalis together under a trustee in view to
gain independence for all Somali territories and (iii) the issue of
the Somali area known as ‘Ogaden’ which was ceded in 1897 to
Ethiopia which temporarily became under British jurisdiction in 1947
but handed back to Ethiopia in 1948 (against the Somalis wish).
These factors formed a cocktail of ingredients that sparked the
Greater Somalia or Pan-Somalia concept or dream, so to speak, among
all Somali speaking populations in the region.
The ambition to struggle to achieve the unity of all five
Somali-inhabited parts was clearly stated by the Somali poets and
literature experts such as the late popular and famous poets such as
Ali Sugulle Egal, Abdillahi Sultan ‘Timacade’, Ahmed Ismail Deria
‘Qasim’ and others.
“Haddaanan NFDii la hingala dhigin (The NFD issue must be settled),
Oon huurkiyo laga qaadin heeryada (And cover of the oppression must
be unveiled);
Haddaanan Jabuuti way hakatee, (Djibouti lags behind),
Oo hilinka kuwa kale hayaan marin (Should take similar path as the
other two),
Haddaanan shantu waa isku hiddee (And the five should have the same
identity),
Is-raacin sida hubka is-wada (They must be united as one like an
automatic weapon).” (Ali Sugulle Egal).
In 1957 a legislative Council consisting of 8 official and 2
ex-officio (British) members, 6 unofficial (Somali) members was
formed in Somaliland though the Council was established two years
earlier (on 10 February 1955) because the Somaliland Constitutional
Order came in force two years later (in 1957). In 15 February 1960,
Somaliland’s first democratically elected parliament. The Council
consisted of 33 natives (Somalis) and 12 non-natives of English and
Indian and Arab origins. The names of the 33 Somali MPs elected
were: 1) Mohamed Haji Ibrahim Egal (Berbera); 2) Ali Garad Jama (Las
Anod);3) Osman Garad Mohamoud (Teleh); 4) Abdalla H Farah (Widhwidh);
5) Mohamoud Yasin Sh. Muse (Odweyne); 6) Mohamed Bihi Shuuriye (Hargeisa);
7) Mohamed Yusuf Geedeeye (Ainabo); 8) Abdillahi Hussein (Ina
Doobikoole) (Hargeisa); 9) Ali Mohamed Haji Abokor (Faraweyne); 10)
Sh. Barkhad Awale (Gabiley); 11) Jama Abdillahi Galib (Ina
Diirqadhaadh) (Salahley); 12) Ahmed-Keyse Haji Duale (Buroa); 13)
Michael Mariano (Eil Afweyn); 14) Mohamed Ali Farah (Hiis); 15)
Abdillahi Qablan Mohamed (Las Korey); 16) Sh Ahmed Mohamoud Dalmar (Erigavo);
17) Ibrahim Eid (Hudun); 18) Mohamoud Ahmed Salah (Jidali); 19) Haji
Ibrahim Nur (Dila); 20) Yusuf Ismail Samatar (Hargeisa); 21) Abokor
Haji Farah (Buroa); 22) Yusuf Kahin Ahmed (Las Dhure); 23) Sh Ali
Ismail Yaqub (Duruqsi); 24) Isse Jama Mohamed (Qoryaley); 25) Haji
Yusuf Iman Guleid (Berbera); 26) Haji Abdillahi Deria (Sheikh); 27)
Haji Ibrahim Osman Food (Adadley); 28) Haji Aden Yusuf (Bulahar);
29) Ali Qowdan (Mandhera); 30) Sh Abibakar sh Omer (Borama); 31)
Jama Ghelle Isse (Zeila); 32) Haji Muse Ahmed Shirwa (Abdulqadir);
33) Abdi Hassan Buni (Boon).
Towards the final years of the colonial period and in preparations
for independence, legislative elections were held on February 1960.
A number of political parties took part. The Somali National League
(SNL) which originated from the Somali National Society (SNS); the
National United Front (NUF aka NAFTA); and the United Somali Party (USP)
participated in the elections. SNL won the elections with a sliding
majority (20 out a total of the 33 seats contested); the USP party
(12 seats) and the NUF party (1 seat).
The first elected Legislative Council (Cabinet) were: Mohamed Haji
Ibrahim Egal (First Minister); Garad Ali Garad Jama (member); Haji
Ibrahim Nur (member); Ahmed Haji Duale (Ahmed Kayse)(member) and
Haji Yusuf Iman (member).
On 6 April 1960 the Somaliland Legislative Council had a meeting
(chaired by the Governor Sir Douglas Hall) in Hargeisa to discuss
two items as agenda: 1) to discuss the independence of Somaliland
and 2) the union with Italian Somalia. The two items were merged and
discussed as a single item as they were closely related and because
the concept of uniting all Somalis which was the main concern of the
people. The two items were inseparable. Most of the constituent
representatives especially the SNL members such as Mohamed Abdi
Shuriye and Haji Ibrahim Osman Food (Basbaas) among others voiced
strongly the union of Somaliland with Somalia. However, Philip Carl,
a member of the council, despite understanding the emotions involved
warned that there were other really important issues that needed to
be discussed. Nonetheless, every other matter was overlooked in the
session. The conclusion was the agreement to proceed to the union
with Somalia.
The Somaliland Council delegate members discussed whether or not to
unite with Italian Somalia which was a UN trusteeship. Some members
such as Garaad Ali Garaad Jama and Mohamed Ibrahim Egal openly
suggested that should remain independent and wait for a while before
joining with the South. Similar suggestions were reported to have
been made by most politicians from the Italian Somalia council
members. They found that the idea was a bit hasty and premature and
even suggested for the northerners to buy more time.
A Somaliland Council delegation consisting of 3 members (Mohamed I
Egal, Garaad Ali Garaad Jama and Haji Ibrahim Nur with Lieutenant
Abdillahi Aden ‘Congo’ as an overall security observer and advisor
left for Mogadishu for discussion with the Government of Abdillahi
Essa Mohamoud in the South which was the last government in the
trusteeship period of 1956-1960). Matters developed in rapidity. The
public anxiety pushed the leaders more to forge union with the
Somalis in the South. The Somaliland delegation was under extreme
pressures from the public. They were instructed to bring a positive
response (the union) back on their return from the South. Therefore,
the overwhelming emotionally charged population in the Protectorate
was the force behind that dictated the union deal with no strings
attached to it. The main agenda was the union without the attachment
of conditions or strings.
On 2 May 1960, the Somaliland cabinet led by Mohamed Ibrahim Egal
left for a ten-day constitutional conference in London to meet their
British counterparts. The members of the delegation composed of the
following members: Mohamed Haji Ibrahim Egal, Minister of Local
Government and leader of Government Business; Ali Garad Jama,
Minister of Communications and Works; Haji Ibrahim Nur, Minister of
Social Services; and Ahmed Haji Duale, Minister of Natural
Resources. The delegation was accompanied by a legal Advisor, Mr
Neil Lawson, and the Governor of the Protectorate, Sir Douglas Hall
(K.C.M.G) and Mohamoud Abdi Arraleh (Secretary to the delegation).
The Colonial Office was represented by Ian Macleod; D.B. Hall; and
H.C.F Wilks (Secretary).
The Somaliland delegation requested for independence. On 12 May 1960
a date was agreed and set for the independence of Somaliland
protectorate to be on 26 June 1960. An agreement was signed on the
day as an acceptable proposal. This date marks a historical time and
a characteristic landmark for the people of Somaliland.
In 1947 the SNL party of the North was campaigning for the
amalgamation of all Somalis in the region to be united. That was
mainly due to the fact that most of the Somali politicians feared of
the negativity of ‘clanism’ as divisive in such a way that it would
be exploited by foreign powers in the United Nations who were, at
the time, in debates of the political destiny of the Somali people.
Anything less than the wholehearted support for unity and ‘Greater
Somalia’ would weaken the case of non-unification by the politicians
was the dream.
The overall intention of the unification of the two Somali
territories was taken as a model step to the ultimate Greater
Somalia ambition that became the byword amongst the Somalis. The
politicians, had no other choice but to play that as a political
card. The SNL’s campaigns before the election were mostly based on
this fact in line with the popular political view. That also existed
in Somalia. It was being pushed by the Somali Youth League (SYL).
As the campaigns for independence of the British protectorate
gathered momentum, the first legislative Council, consisting of 6
Somalis and 8 British which was established in 1957, was increased
to 33 elected official members in 1959. Mohamed Haji Ibrahim Egal,
as first Minister or the leader of the Council and led Somaliland to
independence from Britain on 26 June 1960 as an independent state,
with its own constitution and a government headed by Egal was
formed. At independence, the last British Governor of British
Somaliland Protectorate, Sir Douglas Hall, handed over the
governorship to Osman Ahmed Hassan as the first native Somali
administrator. British Somaliland Protectorate was granted as an
independent country on 26 June 1960. That year was famous for the
phrase “the winds of change” within the British Empire as it was
used in a speech by the then British Prime Minister, Harold
Macmillan. Of the British colonies in the African continent,
Somaliland became an independent state after Sudan (which became
independent in 1956) and Ghana in 1957, while Ethiopia was never
colonised. It was an imperial state. In its first session, the
government of Somaliland voted for union with brothers in the South
with an overwhelming majority. (CONTINUED)
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